- The Psychopathology of Everyday Things
- Intro
- Two of the most important characteristics of good design: discoverability and understanding
- Discoverability: Is it possible to figure out what actions are possible and how to perform them?
- Understanding: What does it all mean? How is it supposed to be used?
- Simple things should not require manuals
- The Complexity of Modern Devices
- When there are issues we should blame the machines and the designers
- Many problems due to lack of understanding of design principles necessary for effective human-machine interaction
- Need to understand both technology and people
- Engineers design for how they want people to be, not how they are
- Human-Centered Design (HCD)
- putting human needs, capabilities, and behaviors first
- getting specification is one of most difficult parts so HCD principle is to avoid specifying the problem as long as possible
- Focus on iterating upon repeated approximations
- Fundamental Principles of Interaction
- great designers produce pleasurable experiences
- discoverability results from affordances, signifiers, constraints, mappings, feedback, and conceptual model
- Affordances
- not a property, but a relationship between the object and the agent
- the capabilities of the agent determine just how the object could possibly be used
- Affordances determine what actions are possible
- Signifiers
- Signifiers communicate where the action should take place
- signifiers communicate the purpose, structure and operation of the device
- can be unintentional and inaccurate
- when you see hand-lettered signs, usually looking at poor design
- signifiers important for designers, communication is key to good design
- Mapping
- how controls correspond to layout of an object
- relationship between control and result is easiest to learn wherever there is an understandable mapping between the controls, actions, and intended result
- may vary by culture
- device is easy to use when the set of possible actions is visible and controls display and exploit natural mappings
- Feedback
- communicating the results of an action
- must be immediate and informative
- poor feedback worse than no feedback and can have too much feedback
- worst is uninterpretable feedback
- feedback must be prioritized with unimportant information being presenting in an unobtrusive fashion
- excessive feedback can be distracting and defeat purpose
- Conceptual Models
- highly simplified explanation of how something works
- people hold these as mental models in their heads
- often wrong and can make things harder to use
- important in providing understanding and predicting how things will behave
- the design can communicate inaccurate conceptual models
- The System Image
- conceptual models are formed by our experiences with using similar objects
- combined information available is the system image
- important to guide users when things go wrong
- key to understandable and enjoyable products
- The Paradox of Technology
- while technology provides benefits, added complexities increase difficulty and frustration
- added functions can cause problems
- helpful if agreed upon standards for complex processes
- The Design Challenge
- requires balance of many disciplines and priorities
- a successful product satisfied all the requirements
- major clashes and deficiencies occur when disciplines operate independently of one another
- The Psychology of Everyday Actions
- How People Do Things: The Gulfs of Execution and Evaluation
- role of designer is to bridge gulf of execution and evalution
- gulf is small when device provides easily interpretable information (feedback and a good conceptual model)
- The Seven Stages of Action
- two parts of acting: doing and interpreting
- execution and evaluation can affect our emotional state
- goals, plan, specify, perform, perceive, interpret, compare
- some of these steps may not be conscious until a big disruption of flow
- many actions are opportunistic vs planned, require less effort
- seven stages helps provide a guideline for developing new products or services
- radical improvements come from reconsidering goals and figuring out root cause
- Human Thought: Mostly Subconscious
- without understanding humans, designs are apt to be faulty or difficult to understand and use
- distinction between activities that are conscious and those that are not (most activities)
- memory for factual information is declarative memory
- because we are only aware of the reflective level of conscious processing, we tend to believe that all human though is conscious
- cognition and emotions are tightly coupled and affect each other
- emotions are a information processing system and assigns value
- subconscious thought is quick and general, but can be wrong
- need a balance of relaxed and tense states, too much of either is dangerous
- Human Cognition and Emotion
- Visceral: lizard brain. fast, automatic. immediate perception.
- Behavioral: home of learned skills. actions and analysis. only have to think about action, not low-level details. every action is associated with an expectation. feedback is vital here.
- Reflective: conscious cognition. highest levels of emotions come from the reflective level, where causes are assigned and predictions of the future take place.
- Design must take place at all levels
- Reflection is perhaps most important
- reflective memories are often more important than reality
- badly designed devices can induce frustration and anger, while well-designed devices can induce pride and enjoyment
- either cognition or emotion can be first and drive the other
- The Seven Stages of Action and the Three Levels of Processing
- one important emotional state is the one that accompanies complete immersion or “flow”
- feelings based on results and expectations
- People as Storytellers
- people innately disposed to look for causes of events to form explanations and stories
- errors can result from correlation causation
- everyone forms stories to explain what they have observed
- Blaming the Wrong Things
- tendency to repeat an action when the first attempt fails can be disastrous
- better to show conservative time estimates
- people often incorrectly attribute the causal factor
- Learned Helplessness
- when people experience repeated failure at a task
- sometimes only takes a few experiences
- when people have trouble using technology and seems like other people aren’t having trouble can induce this
- one small failure can cause a vicious cycle resulting in a self-fulfilling prophecy
- Positive Psychology
- can learn optimistic positive responses to life
- to fail is to learn and we learn more from our failures than our successes
- don’t blame people for your failed products
- take difficulties as signifiers for where product can be improved
- eliminate error messages and provide help and guidance instead
- don’t impede progress, try to keep smooth and continuous and easy to correct
- Falsely Blaming Yourself
- users many times blame themselves and stay quiet even if design may be faulty
- designers should take special pains to make errors as cost-free as possible
- should try to find out when errors happened and rectify
- hard to design things that work well when thing don’t go according to planned
- How Technology can accommodate human behavior
- feedback is much cheaper today due to falling costs
- allowing flexible inputs helps usability
- The Seven Stages of Action: Seven Fundamental Design Principles
- information that helps answer questions of execution are feedforwards
- information that helps understanding what has happened is feedback
- feedforward accomplished through signifiers, constraints, and mappings
- don’t criticize unless you can do better
- good design requires condiseration of the entire system
- Knowledge in the Head and in the World
- Precise Behavior from Imprecise Knowledge
- Knowledge is both in the head and in the world: much of the knowledge a person needs to do a task can be derived from the information in the world
- Great Precision is not required: perfect behavior can result if combined knowledge in head and world is sufficient to distinguish appropriate choices
- Natural Constraints Exist in the World: Provides knowledge
- Knowledge of Cultural Constraints and Conventions exists in the head: learned artificial restrictions on behavior that reduce the set of likely actions.
- People can figure out how to react with incomplete information
- good performance can result even in absence of previous knowledge
- Knowledge is in the World
- When knowledge is readily available, need to learn it diminishes
- so much knowledge available, surprising how little we need to learn
- two types of knowledge: of and how
- of or declarative knowledge includes facts and rules
- how or procedural knowledge enables people to do things. difficult to write down or teach
- When Precision is unexpectedly required
- people maintain only partial description of things to be remembered
- introducing similar things can cause confusion
- people learn to focus on distinguishing features
- prexisting filters based on history
- Constraints Simplify Memory
- easier to memorize poetry, because more constraints on what can be right
- constraints make it easier to retain things in memory
- physical constraints can greatly reduce the number of ways things can be put together incorrectly
- The Structure of Memory
- Short-term: quick, severely limited. capacity depends on familiarity with topics. don’t expect much to get retained.
- Long-term: takes time to get into and out of. sleep strengthens. reviewing also helps. subject to different interpretations, not 100% accurate.
- Memories are usually in two categories: arbitrary things and meaningful things
- arbitrary associated with rote learning, difficult.
- good conceptual models lie in ability to provide meaning to things
- once you create a meaningful relationship much easier to remember
- Approximate Models: Memory in the Real World
- many experts don’t consciously think about what they are doing
- many times approximations are good enough in the practical world
- Scientific Theory vs. Everyday Practice
- in scientific world usually broad agreement and disagreement are very specifics
- in practical world, don’t need absolute truth
- Knowledge in the Head
- for prospective memory, trying to remember yourself is not a good strategy
- signal and the message are distinct
- Tradeoff Between Knowledge in the World and in the Head
- some tradeoff on depending on one more than the other
- Memory in Multiple Heads, Multiple Devices
- external knowledge is powerful, but often erroneous
- partnership of technology and people are making us more capable, but we are increasingly becoming reliant on it
- Natural Mapping
- Best mapping: controls are mounted directly on the item
- Second-best: controls are close to the object
- Third-best: controls are arranged in the same spatial configuration
- usability is not often thought about in the purchasing process
- Culture and Design: Natural Mappings Can Vary with Culture
- think of computers scrolling down on computer vs swiping up to read down
- no correct answer, depends on what you consider to be moving
- Knowing What to Do: Constraints, Discoverability, and Feedback
- Four Kinds of Constraints:
- Physical: better if easier to see and interpret. sometimes legacy problem. think about root cause. solving one problem could make certain items unnecessary.
- Cultural: We follow scripts the guide action.
- Semantic: study of meaning. rely on the meaning of the situation to control set of possible actions. Can change though.
- Logical: logical relationships between the spatial or functional layout of components.
- Cultural Norms, Conventions and Standards
- conventions are cultural constraints
- violating conventions can mark you as an outsider
- Applying Affordances, Signifiers and Constraints to Everyday Objects
- many doors are not designed very well
- e.g. putting plates for push instead of handles
- sometimes switches are ambiguous and confusing e.g. many switches
- a usable design starts with careful observation of how the tasks being supported are actually performed
- Constraints That Force the Desired Behavior
- Forcing Functions: form of physical constraint, prevents an action from happening if failure at one stage
- Interlocks: forces operations to take place in proper sequence. e.g. operator needs to verify presence when using heavy-duty equipment
- Lock-ins: keeps operation alive. e.g. save-screen on documents when trying to close. Can try to lock-in customers with a seamless experience between products.
- Lockouts: prevents someone from entering a space. usually safety related.
- Conventions, Constraints, and Affordances
- conventions connect signifier with affordances
- conventions are cultural constraints
- sometimes hard to go against convention even if more compelling alternative
- if new is only slightly better, better to be consistent
- mixed systems are confusing
- standardization is the fundamental principle of desperation
- Using Sound as Signifiers
- should be informative not annoying
- can be easy to distract than aid
- Skeuomorphic: incorporating old familiar ideas into new technologies even if no functional role. helps with transitions
- Human Error? No, Bad Design
- Intro
- When people think its human error, they go back to doing the same thing
- For failures should find fundamental causes and redesign system so these can no longer lead to problems
- Understanding Why There is Error
- Most common reason is the nature of the tasks and the procedures that require people to behave in unnatural ways
- We typically respond to error with punishment
- Doesn’t cure the problem, because results in same errors over and over again
- Root Cause Analysis
- Investigating the accident until the single underlying cause is found
- One problem is usually not one problem/cause
- Second, generally analysis stops when a person is found. Should focus on what led to the error.
- The Five Whys
- Emphasizes need to keep going deeper even after an initial reason is found
- tends to point to one cause, when usually there are multiple reasons
- Need to think about the requirements of people
- time stress is also a major cause
- Deliberate Violations
- Sometimes people knowingly take risks
- Sometimes work is structured so people can’t get tasks done without breaking rules
- Can result in rewarding non-compliance, may be due to organizational and societal errors
- Major Error 1: Slips
- Person intended to do one action and ends up doing something else
- Action-based and memory based
- Major Error 2: Mistakes
- Wrong goal is established or wrong plan is formed
- Proper actions, but error bc they were inappropriate
- Rule-based: person appropriately diagnosed situation, but decided on wrong rule to follow
- Knowledge-based: problem is misdiagnosed because of erroneous or incomplete knowledge
- Memory-lapse: Forgetting at the stages of goals, plans or evaluation
- Error and the Seven Stages of Action
- Mistakes are errors in setting the goal or plan
- Slips happen in the execution of the plan
- Memory lapses can happen in any step
- The Classification of Slips
- Most everyday errors are slips
- Capture Slips
- instead of desired activity, a more frequent or recently performed one gets done instead
- more common in experienced professionals, because usually not paying attention, actions more automatic
- Designers should avoid having identical operating steps but then diverge
- Description-Similarity Slips
- Act upon an item similar to the target
- Designers should ensure that controls and displays for different purposes are significantly different from one another.
- Memory-Lapse Slips
- Immediate cause of memory-lapse failures is interruptions
- One way to combat is reduce number of steps
- Another way is to provide vivid reminders of steps that need to be completed
- Or forcing function. require something to be done before next step
- Model-Error Slips
- When a device has different states in which the same controls have different meanings
- clocks often set wrong alarm e.g. AM/PM
- e.g. remote control that controls everything
- especially likely when the equipment does not make the mode visible and user has to remember
- Designers should either avoid or make very obvious
- Rule-based Mistakes
- situation can be mistakenly interpreted
- rule itself can be faulty
- outcome can be incorrectly evaluated
- Designers should provide as much guidance as possible to ensure that the current state of tings is displayed in a coherent and easily interpreted format–ideally graphical
- easy to spot in hindsight, but at the time, likely overwhelmed with far too much irrelevant information
- Goal should be to present information about the state of the system in a way that is easy to assimilate and interpret
- Knowledge-Based Mistakes
- Novel situations with no skills or rules to cover it
- Best solution is to be found in a good understanding of the situation
- In complex cases, help is needed and good cooperative problem-solving skills and tools are required
- Memory-Lapse Mistakes
- when goal or plan of action is forgotten
- commonly caused by interruption
- Avoid by ensuring that all relevant information is continuously available
- Designer should assume user will be interrupted and will pick up again
- Social and Institutional Pressures
- Social pressures has strong influence on everyday behavior
- once a problem is discovered by a team, biases everyone
- Usually high pressure to keep things running
- huge errors include plane crashes and nuclear reaction disasters
- Don’t show up often in analyses because people and organizations are reluctant to admit
- Good design not enough. Need to reward safety.
- Checklists
- Powerful tool proven to increase accuracy of behavior and reduce errors
- Must be designed to cover essential items, but not be too burdensome
- bad to impose a sequential structure unless the task itself requires it
- Reporting Error
- If errors can be caught, many problems they may lead to can be caught
- not all easy to find and people may be reluctant to report
- Reduce incidence of errors is to admit their existence, gather information on them, and be able to make appropriate changes
- Hard to do in absence of data
- Make it easier to report with goal to not punish but to determine how it occurred and change things so tat it will not happen again
- Jidoka – in Toyota, if its discovered someone didn’t report an error, they are punished
- Poka-yoke or error proofing – add simple fixtures or devices to constrain the operations so that they are correct.
- Detecting Error
- Slips are easy to detect, but faulty diagnoses are hard
- Explaining Away Mistakes
- Usually doesn’t matter ignoring an error
- when something bigger goes wrong, people say didn’t notice, because no single incident appeared to be serious
- Designing for Error
- It should not be possible for one simple error to cause widespread damage
- Understand the causes of error and design to minimize those causes
- Do sensibility checks
- Make it possible to reverse actions
- Make it easy for people to discover the errors
- Don’t treat action like an error, rather focus on helping user complete the action properly
- Many don’t make it easy to pick up after an interruption and remember numerous small decisions that had been made
- Warning must be carefully designed, because if too many, will be ignored, but should not be too annoying
- Design Lesson from the study of errors
- Add constraints to block errors e.g. colors, shapes, physical constraints
- Undo: ability to reverse operation
- Confirmation and Error Messages: people focus on actions, make clear implications
- Sensibility Checks: intelligent systems can notify when largely out of bounds of normal range
- Minimizing Slips
- Slips occur when conscious mind is distracted
- Best way to mitigate slips is to provide perceptible feedback about nature of action being performed and perceptible feedback on new state
- design for interruptions and not undivided attention
- Swiss Cheese Model of How Errors Lead to Accidents
- Usually multiple small errors cause accidents
- Swiss cheese metaphor suggests several ways to reduce accidents
- 1) Add more slices of cheese
- 2) reduce the number of holes or make them smaller
- 3) alert the human operators when several holes have lined up
- Resilience Engineering
- goal of designing systems, procedures, management, and the training of people so they can respond to problems as they arise
- The Paradox of Automation
- When working fine great, but when fails, can potentially be very big
- Can take over dull, dreary tasks, but fail with complex ones
- when automation fails usually does so without warning
- People can become too trusting and reliant on them
- Design Principles for Dealing with Error
- Need to understand what humans are good at and what machines are good at
- Making people monitor something for long periods of time people have hard time doing, because not made for it
- Put the knowledge required to operate the technology in the world. Don’t require knowledge to be in head.
- Use the power of natural and artificial constraints: physical, logical, semantic, an cultural. Use forcing functions and natural mappings.
- bridge execution and evaluation. Make things visible for both. provide feedback and make it possible to determine the system’s status.
- Design Thinking
- Intro
- Secret success is to understand what the real problem is
- In the real world, problems do not come in neat packages, they have to be discovered
- Solving the Correct Problem
- Emphasis of book is developing products that fit the needs and capabilities of people
- They take the original problem as a suggestion and think broadly about the underlying issue
- Process is iterative
- converge on proposal after considering a wide range of proposals
- Double-Diamond Model of Design
- They expand the scope of the problem, diverging to examine all the fundamental issues that underlie it, then converge upon a single problem statement
- During solution phase, they expand the space of possible solutions and the converge upon a proposed solution
- Discover, Define, Develop, Deliver
- Human-Centered Design Process
- Testing
- gather a group of people who closely correspond to target population and have them use the prototypes
- Observe; video can be helpful
- Get more detailed information about the people’s thought processes and questioning them
- Jakob Nielsen champions five tests
- Study, refine, and do another iteration
- Done in problem specification to ensure that the problem is well understood
- Done in problem solution to ensure that the new design meets the needs and abilities of those who will use it
- Four main activities: Observation, Idea Generation, Prototyping, Testing
- Observation
- Research about the customer and the people who will use the products
- Applied Ethnography: observe would-be customers in natural environment
- Traditional measure such as background what matters most are the activities to be performed
- Design wants to know about people and how they will use
- Tends to focus on qualitative factors so can’t do as much
- Marketing wants to know what people will buy, which includes learning how they make their purchasing decisions
- Traditionally uses large-scale quantitative studies with heavy reliance on focus groups, surveys, and questionnaires
- Both are necessary, because 1) products must be bought and 2) it must support real needs so people can get pleasure form them
- Idea Generation
- Generate numerous ideas. dangerous to become fixated upon one or two ideas too early
- Be creative without regard for constraints. Crazy ideas can contain creative insights.
- Question Everything. A stupid question asks about things so fundamental that everyone asumes answer is obvious, but often times what was obvious just happens to be the way things were done.
- Prototyping
- Sometimes only way to know whether an idea is reasonable is to test it
- Mock-ups can be pen an paper and don’t have to be sophisticated
- Wizard of Oz strategy involves mimicking or simulating the interaction even if manually
- Done in problem specification to ensure that the problem is well understood
- During problem solution phaase of deisgn, real prototypes of proposed solution are invoked
- Iteration
- Fail frequently, fail fast
- Deliberate tests and modifications make things better
- Requirements made in the abstract are invariably wrong
- Getting requirements right involves repeated study and testing
- Activity-centered vs. Human-centered Design
- Activity-centered design is letting the activity define the product and its structure
- People’s activities around the world tend to be similar
- People are less willing to learn an arbitrary system, but will learn things that are essential
- People in all cultures learn to drive cars
- Activity is higher level than task (shopping vs. find a shopping basket)
- Levels of activity
- Be-goals: why someone acts
- Do-goal: determine plans and actions to be performed
- Motor-goal: how actions are performed
- Focusing on tasks is too limiting
- Iterative Design vs Linear Stages
- traditional is waterfall method
- Both have merits
- Iterative methods defer the formation of rigid specifications, Good for early design, Difficulty scaling to large projects
- Decision gates give management better control of the process, but can be cumbersome
- A combine method uses iteration between the gates
- Trick is to delay precise specification of the product requirements until some iterative testing with prototypes has been done
- The hardest part of the development of complex products is management
- It doesn’t work that way
- HCD describes the idea, but in reality, a business forces people to behave differently from the ideal
- Market pressures plus an engineering-driven company yield increasing features, complexity, and confusion
- Don Norman’s Law of Product Development: The day a product development process starts, it is behind schedule and above budget
- Good product development teams work as harmonious groups
- The Design Challenge
- The fundamental principles of designing for people are the same across all domains
- In dysfunctional companies, each team works in isolation, often arguing with the other teams
- products have multiple, conflicting requirements
- the buyer may not be the user and focus may be on factors other than usability (e.g. price)
- For changes, best to make sure representatives of each group are present
- Designing for Special People
- All people are different, make different versions
- The Stigma Problem
- Many tools fail, because people don’t want to be associated with infirmities
- Designing for people with special needs is called inclusive or universal design
- The best solution to the problem of designing for everyone is flexibility
- Complexity Is Good; Confusion is Bad
- Most important principle for taming complexity is to provide a good conceptual model
- Standardization and Technology
- Standardization can result in improvements
- Cultural constraint
- Provide a major breakthrough in usability
- Very laborious process, esp with more people
- Companies marketing a product the meets a proposed standard will have a huge advantage
- Take a long time to establish, but simplify our lives and make it possible for different brands of equipment to work together in harmony
- Deliberately Making Things Difficult
- not all things should optimize ease of use
- hide critical components
- Use unnatural mappings
- make the actions physically difficult to do
- Require precise timing and physical manipulation
- Do not give any feedback
- Design in the World of Business
- Competitive Forces
- Manufacturers compete on price, features, and quality
- Speed is important and competition may force a company to change its offerings
- Mechanisms for collecting feedback seldom exist
- Featuritis: A Deadly Temptation
- Existing customers like the product, but express a wish for more features, more functions, more capability
- A competing company adds new features to its products, producing competitive pressures to match that offering
- Customers are satisfied, but market is saturated
- Attempt to match the competition causes all products to be the same
- Rare for a organization to let a good product stay untouched
- Professor Moon argues a better strategy is to concentrate on areas they are stronger and strengthen them and ignore irrelevant weaknesses
- Best products come from ignoring competing voices and focusing on the true needs of the people
- New Technologies Force Change
- Tech changes, but fundamental needs remain unchanged
- The need for getting thoughts written down, for telling stories, doing critical reviews, or writing fiction and nonfiction will remain
- Technological change has impacted every sphere of our lives: education, medicine, food, clothing, and transportation
- How Long Does it Take to Introduce a New Product
- people and culture change slowly
- Can take decades for products to get accepted
- even modern tech follow this cycle: fast to be invented, slow to be accepted, even slower to fade away
- large companies also tend to be conservative and most radical ideas fail
- Took almost three decades from the invention of multi-touch before companies were able to manufacture it with robustness to be deployed to the home consumer market
- Ideas that are too early often fail
- Requires change and investment from people to change to something new
- Rule of thumb is 20 years from first demonstration to commercial product
- The Typewriter Keyboard
- QWERTY keys were designed to minimize chance of collision
- Guarantees fast typing speed by placing letter that form frequent pairs far apart
- main forces were mechanical and marketing
- Incremental Innovation
- Most design evolves through incremental innovation
- testing and modifying cycle known as hill climbing
- Cannot find higher hills, only the top of the current hill
- Radical
- Starts fresh often driven by new technologies
- Internet showed that movies, music, newspaper, were really all just information providers
- All still consumed, but the distribution is changing
- Areas due for major transformation: Education, transformation, medicine, housing
- The Design of Everyday Things: 1998 – 2038
- People tend to be resilient to change
- Social interaction, communication, and music are fundamental to human life they will persist no matter what like eating food
- Believe “next great change” will take place within the sphere of these activities
- Many areas: Education, business, transportation, self-expression, the arts, sex, health, food, drink, clothing, housing
- principle remain the same, but examples changed from last print of this book
- As Technologies Change will People Stay the Same?
- Possible changes raise ethical issues
- Perhaps a new species is arising, artificial devices had many of the capabilities of people sometimes superior
- Technology, people, and culture: all will change
- Things That Make Us Smart
- Arguments that technology makes us smart and stupid
- Each advance frees the mind from lower, petty things
- Brain stays the same, tasks it focuses on changes
- Best combination is human and machine
- Humans tend to be strongest where computers are weak and vice versa
- Unaided mind is highly overrated
- Real power comes from devising external aids that enhance cognitive abilities
- The Moral Obligations of Design
- Needless features, needless models: good for business, bad for the environment
- Services are repeatable, but problem with sellers of durable good since once everyone has it, they don’t need to buy anymore
- Manufactures deliberately plan ways to make their products obsolete
- Can also do this by making things go out of style
- The design of everyday things is in great danger of becoming the design of superfluous, overloaded, unnecessary things.
- Design Thinking and Thinking About Design
- A design that people do not purchase is a failed design no matter how great the design team might be
- The design must be though of as a total experience
- Design not enough, have to be produced reliability, efficiently, and on schedule
- If manufacturing cannot produce the product, the design is flawed
- People’s needs must be met and they must want to buy, use and like the product
- Enjoy the world, learn how to observe
- The Rise of the Small
- New technologies promise to give more power to the individual
- Unlock creative power
- Individuals can share, sell, distribute their ideas or products
- Driven by efficient tools
- Power is shifting
- Rise of global interconnection, global communication, powerful design, and manufacturing methods that can be used by all, the world is rapidly changing
- As the World Changes What Stays the Same?
- Human beings have always been social beings
- The design principles of discoverability, feedback, power of affordances and signifiers, mapping, and conceptual models will always hold
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